Robert Marquez, Kym Gopp

Given the current state of fragmentation and human impact in carnivore landscapes, the success of conservation initiatives for many carnivore species depends on securing landscapes of sufficient size, structure, and connectivity to support viable populations, and reduce human induce mortality. Achieving this requires the management of coexistence, enabling carnivores to persist in landscapes where human activities are present. To help manage coexistence we developed the Presence-Tolerance Model (PTM) that conceptualizes coexistence socio-ecological system through 2 components: presence and tolerance, and 4 key attributes: habitat, security, value, and accord. Presence represents the ecological dimension, where the habitat attribute refers to the species' ecological niche, including land use and prey abundance, and the security attribute pertains to interactions with other species that affect distribution and population levels. Tolerance represents the socio-psychological dimension, where the value attribute reflects the psychological relationship between humans and the species, and accord involves the social dynamics among human actors regarding the species' presence. Through an adaptive management approach, the PTM model has been applied in landscapes in Colombia and Perú using occupancy models to determine presence in relation to land cover and human interactions, and modified planned behavior models to evaluated tolerance by incorporating attitudes, perceived value, and social norms. Throughout all sampled landscapes the results showed high bear occupancy (0.74–0.93), influenced by habitat conditions, free-ranging cattle, and proximity to settlements. Tolerance and hunting likelihood were affected by trust in organizations, economic dependence on cattle, and perceived livestock losses. These factors allowed for management interventions tailored to the specific habitat and socio-political conditions of each landscape.